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Sharing
and Using Intelligence in
International Organizations: Some Guidelines*
Helene
L. Boatner **
2730 Fort Scott Drive
Arlington, VA 22202, USA
ABSTRACT
The nations of the
world increasingly are conducting business collectively,
through international organizations. Intelligence services,
traditionally focused on serving the needs of single nations,
are being called upon to work within a larger international
framework and to cooperate with counterpart services in
pursuit of shared objectives. Decisions about sharing
intelligence information present special difficulties
and dilemmas when they must involve international organizations.
This article traces the evolution of intelligence sharing
policies - largely from a US perspective - and offers
some proposed guidelines for making more effective use
of intelligence in a multilateral context.
In
the abstract, intelligence is most valuable when it is
uniquely available to only one person (or group or government).
But it is only useful when it is made available to the
person (or group or government) who can use it to change
the course of history. This contradiction is the basic
dilemma underlying all discussions about the sharing of
intelligence - within governments, between governments,
and within multinational organizations.
Knowledge
is power, and attempts to restrict its availability come
naturally to those who delight in control. In the intelligence
business, this tendency shows itself in ludicrous ways.
For example, US President Harry Truman asked the Central
Intelligence Group (CIG) to create a Daily Summary of
incoming information for his consumption. Then he had
to force the Secretary of State to give the necessary
State Department cables to the CIG. To this day, the Central
Intelligence Agency (CIA) struggles for access to the
information considered most valuable and most sensitive
by the other elements of the US Government that control
the data, while the CIA also insists on maintaining tight
control over a huge share of the material it collects.
Thus sharing is not something that comes naturally to
intelligence officers.
These
problems become more and more difficult to deal with as
the universe of potential sharers grows. It is one with
which all intelligence services must struggle and one
that confronts them with special difficulties as international
organizations are increasingly becoming major actors on
the international scene.
The
following comments are based primarily on my two-year
experience supporting the US Mission to the United Nations,
which involved me in issues relating to the sharing of
information with UN elements and helping them to improve
their procedures for using and protecting such information.
My prior background for the assignment encompassed 30
years spent producing and delivering US finished intelligence
products to US customers and overseeing clearance of analytic
work for sharing with other governments. My purpose is
to delineate some general principles that I believe need
to be understood as proposed international sharing arrangements
are considered.
World
War II and the Cold War
Most
modern intelligence services are products of World War
II and the Cold War, and the early decisions they made
about sharing intelligence across nations grew out of
military alliances against a common enemy. The US/UK "special
relationship" and the broader cooperative arrangements
involving the US, the UK, Canada, Australia and New Zealand
were created in the early 1940s and became stronger and
more complex with the passage of time. The US and the
USSR also exchanged intelligence throughout the war. After
the war, the Soviet Union became the leader of a competitive
network, with strong central direction from Moscow and
with the East European members playing specialized roles.
The heads of the British, French and West German services
also met regularly to share information on topics of common
interest. (deMarenches & Andelman 1992, pp. 218-222;
Richelson 1990, pp. 308-310; Johnson & Freyberg 1997)
In
addition, intelligence services of "third world"
countries were trained, nurtured, and brought into sharing
relationships by "first" and "second"
world sponsors who saw them as potential Cold War allies.
The Arab countries shared intelligence with one another
on Israel. The Israelis maintained strong contacts with
France and formed a trilateral sharing arrangement with
Iran and Turkey; they also shared intelligence about the
Arabs bilaterally with many of the African countries.
Similar intelligence sharing networks of varying degrees
of closeness formed in clusters of nations that were pro-
or anti- China, North Korea, etc. (deMarenches & Andelman
1992; Richelson 1990, Westerfield 1996)
As
NATO and the Warsaw Pact grew into formal military organizations,
intelligence elements were a natural development, and
decisions had to be made about how to handle information
collected by individual members within a multinational
structure. All sorts of elaborate systems for sharing
and compartmenting intelligence evolved - usually based
on the nationalities of the individuals involved. Because
these were elaborate military structures, their operations
were highly codified and documented in great detail.
The
underlying themes of these sharing relationships, whether
bilateral or multilateral, were:
-
the enemy of my enemy is my friend; and
- no
sharing of intelligence about friends with other friends.
With
the end of the Cold War and the collapse of the Warsaw
Pact, however, these simple guidelines were not very useful.
Who was the enemy? Who was the friend? And in any event
the prospect of military conflict across national borders
was no longer the central concern of most governments.
Thus there were new issues about what to share, as well
as with whom.
The
Last Decade
By
the end of the 1980s there were a number of subjects on
which the NATO and Warsaw Pact countries had common interests
- for example countering proliferation of weapons of mass
destruction, deterring the flow of illicit drugs, countering
terrorism, promoting peaceful resolution of international
and civil conflict, and ensuring the safety of nuclear
materials. These were not topics that could be addressed
effectively in a purely military framework or on a national
or regional basis. They demanded a truly international
effort. New models were needed.
Concurrently,
the end of the Cold War witnessed a revitalization of
the United Nations. Suddenly the United States and Russia
found common ground and began to cooperate at the UN,
especially in the Security Council. With the support of
four of the five permanent members of the Council - and
the reluctant acquiescence of the Chinese - UN peacekeeping
missions proliferated. In 1994 almost 80,000 troops were
serving in over 20 UN missions around the world. And they
had begun to draw on UN member countries for intelligence
to support those peacekeeping missions. The numbers are
smaller now - about 14,000 personnel in 17 operations
in the autumn of 1999, but the need for intelligence continues
(Washington Post, November 13, 1999)
The
US-Russia coincidence of views had particular relevance
in the Middle East, which had long been an area for conflict
between them. The two countries worked together to end
the Iran-Iraq war, and the Russians were vigorously and
vocally opposed to the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait. They
worked closely with their erstwhile NATO antagonists to
develop and implement UN sanctions against Iraq and a
UN regime intended to eliminate Iraq's potential for the
use of nuclear, chemical and biological weapons, and they
contributed personnel to the UN Special Commission on
Iraq (UNSCOM) set up in 1991 to enforce that regime.
The
Russians also cooperated with the US and other nations
to enforce economic sanctions against several other countries,
including Yugoslavia and Libya. And Moscow backed UN humanitarian
missions - sometimes even with resources. Indeed, US-Russian
mutual tolerance has even survived the breakup of Yugoslavia
and the subsequent dispatch of UN and NATO missions to
several areas of "greater Yugoslavia." And US
and Russian troops are serving side by side in Kosovo,
albeit not without periodic misunderstandings and frictions.
Intelligence
at the UN
However,
one judges the overall effectiveness of the UN and its
agencies in peacekeeping, sanctions enforcement, arms
control, stopping genocide and dealing with humanitarian
emergencies Intelligence information provided by member
countries, as well as information developed by UN entities
and by non-governments organizations (NGOs), has played
a positive role. But the idea of sharing intelligence
between national governments and the UN has required a
seismic shift in attitudes and practices on all sides.
For
the UN as an organization, even admitting to using intelligence
has been difficult and distasteful. The UN has long maintained
that it does not engage in intelligence operations and
has preferred to refer only to its information needs.
In
deference to UN sensibilities, both Canadian and US military
directives instruct their personnel engaged in UN peacekeeping
operations to keep their terminology in line with UN preferences.
Some of the civilian entities of the UN have been reluctant
to be involved with peacekeeping because it might tarnish
their own humanitarian images.
Nonetheless,
every UN Secretary General has expressed a need for better
information for strategic decision making, and the UN
investigation of attacks on UN personnel in Somalia concluded
that, "The need to satisfy the UN's requirement for
reliable information and intelligence gathering capability
is important if peace enforcement operations are to be
successfully carried out." A study produced by the
UN Protection Force (Yugoslavia) argued strongly that
peacekeeping against active opposition demands an intelligence
function (Ramsbotham 1995, p. 162; Johnston 1997, pp.103-4).
A
Situation Centre was established within the Department
of Peacekeeping Operations (DPKO) in April of 1993. It
operates around the clock, includes representation from
the Department of Humanitarian Affairs, and has a limited
analytic capability. It also has acquired the US-developed
Joint Deployable Intelligence Support System (JDISS),
which has greatly improved its theoretical ability to
communicate with UN field elements and with any other
country that has the same equipment. In fact, with personnel
assigned to the Centre by their own governments for limited
tours and with little technical training, the ability
to use JDISS and other sophisticated systems has been
limited (Ramsbotham 1995, pp. 169-171).
Every
UN peacekeeping operation for the last decade or so has
had intelligence elements, usually integrated into the
national contingents, and most have developed multinationally-staffed
headquarters elements as well. Enough experience has accumulated
to generate a substantial military intelligence literature
on intelligence support to peacekeeping operations in
the US. After-action studies of US participation in operations
such as Somalia, Haiti and Bosnia have concluded that
human source intelligence often is more critical to success
than the high-technology systems on which the US military
tends to rely, and that other countries often are more
effective than the US in gathering human source information.
Academic observers also stress the importance of intelligence
shortcomings at the operational, as opposed to the strategic,
level. (Pickert 1997; Eriksson 1997, p. 1-6; Smith 1994,
pp. 176-177; Johnston 1997, pp. 109-110).
The
US has been more vocal than other UN members in publicly
acknowledging the role of intelligence in making the UN
more effective. In a speech to the UN General Assembly
in September 1992, President Bush urged the UN members
to take a number of steps to strengthen the UN including
developing its planning, crisis management and intelligence
capabilities. His January 1993 National Security Strategy
Paper declared that, "US intelligence today is...being
used in dramatically new ways, such as assisting the international
organizations like the United Nations when called upon
in support of crucial peacekeeping, humanitarian assistance
and arms control efforts. We will share information and
assets that strengthen peaceful relationships and aid
in building confidence," (Pickert 1997, p. 407; Smith
1994, p. 184).
The
Clinton Administration adopted the same thrust; it set
out in 1993 to develop a Presidential Decision Directive
(PDD) on multilateral peacekeeping operations that would
lay out a forward-leaning US policy on participation in
peacekeeping, including provision of intelligence information.
Enthusiasm for the UN is not universal in US political
circles, however; to some, particularly in Congress, cooperation
with the UN is "incredibly naive" and "caving
in to one-world government." Considerable controversy
ensued over the conditions and command arrangements under
which US military personnel could be committed to UN peacekeeping
operations. The PDD finally unveiled in May 1994 said,
inter alia, that the US would support stronger UN planning,
logistics, information and command and control capabilities.
It recommended reorganization of DPKO to include separate
divisions for plans, information and research, operations,
and logistics (Pickert 1997, pp. 395-431; McKinnon, 1999,
pp. 32-54).
These
recommendations served to codify changes already made
by DPKO, with US encouragement, while the PDD was being
debated. The US provided personnel and equipment to support
the Situation Centre and establish the information and
research element, and it provided a stream of intelligence-based
information, duly sanitized by the intelligence organizations
providing it and funnelled through the Defense Intelligence
Agency, to support several specific operations and to
facilitate planning for possible future peacekeeping and
humanitarian operations (Pickert 1997, pp. 440-445).
Nor
are peacekeeping efforts the only UN activities receiving
US intelligence. Monitors overseeing UN-imposed economic
sanctions depend heavily on information provided by governments
supporting the sanctions effort. Information derived from
imagery has played a key role in detecting and documenting
genocide in Rwanda/Burundi, Bosnia, and Kosovo, and it
presumably will play a critical role as evidence in the
war crimes trials to come. Imagery-derived maps and related
reports have greatly improved the timeliness and effectiveness
of UN relief operations on many occasions. The UN High
Commissioner for Refugees also has been the recipient
of a considerable volume of information (US State Dept.
1996; Pickert 1997, pp. 75-98; Constantine 1995, p.13;
NYTimes June 10, 1999).
Of
course, many other UN member countries also share intelligence
with the UN in one fashion or another, most often through
informal exchanges between their own personnel and those
of the UN. UN elements share information with each other,
with specific member nations, and with NGOs. Some of the
most valuable information is available from civilians
and officials caught up in the conflict, disaster or genocide
in question, although this information is not sought as
systematically as could be wished (Eriksson 1997, pp.
9-10).
To
date, the most intensive use of governmentally-supplied
information has been made by UNSCOM. In creating UNSCOM,
the Security Council agreed to unprecedented intrusive
measures against a sovereign member state. Over time,
as the Iraqis stonewalled inspection efforts, UNSCOM evolved
into a complex organization devoted to uncovering Iraq's
concealment activities. The US provided the U-2 planes
that produced reconnaissance photos for UNSCOM. UNSCOM
relied heavily on intelligence inputs from the US, the
UK, Israel - and presumably many others of the countries
that were former arms suppliers to Iraq and actively supported
the UNSCOM effort. Difficulties arose, however, because
providers of information were not willing to discuss sources,
and failures to find suspected materials undermined confidence
in the accuracy of information. As of this writing, detailed
arrangements for a successor organization apparently have
not been formalized, but clearly its success will depend
in no small measure on access to intelligence from national
governments (Wise 1999; Washington Post September 29,
1998; NYTimes January 17, 1999; Kay 1997; Ritter 1999).
The
US has developed elaborate formal procedures for providing
intelligence to the UN, but no clear-cut rules have yet
been formulated about how the broader network of relationships
works. Each new case is unique, and the procedures have
to be worked out laboriously in light of specific circumstances.
But perhaps some generalizations drawn from my observations
of recent US intelligence relationships with the UN will
be useful in thinking about intelligence sharing in and
with the UN and other international organizations in the
21st Century.
Increasing
Effective Use of Intelligence in International Organizations
It
is difficult, but not impossible, for a country or its
leadership to behave so badly that even the most fissiparous
international organization will unite in opposition. Iraq's
behavior toward Kuwait and toward its own citizens permitted
- almost demanded - virtually unanimous support for economic
sanctions and the UNSCOM regime that lasted for almost
eight years. Every time the competing national interests
of the permanent members of the Security Council seemed
to be leading to limits on UNSCOM, the Iraqis said or
did something to destroy their opportunity. Milosevic
has no one but himself to blame for US/Russian cooperation
in the Balkans. The horrors of the slaughter in Rwanda
and Burundi made it impossible for the world to stand
aside. And it is the unity of purpose engendered by
outlaw behavior that makes nations willing to share even
some quite sensitive intelligence information in new and
different ways.
The
UN has traditionally refused to provide information on
the activities of its member states to one another. But
this makes it almost impossible for the UN to disseminate
information to its field elements and operations about
arms flows, financial support, movement of materials relevant
to weapons of mass destruction and a host of other topics
that are fundamental to enforcing sanctions. The larger
the international organization involved, the less it can
afford to eschew sharing information on its member states
with others who are working to ensure compliance.
Much
of the information necessary to support a humanitarian
operation or a peacekeeping mission is not really sensitive.
In either case, information on ports, roads, airports,
railroads, telecommunications, population concentrations,
the normal flows of goods and services, medical facilities,
epidemiologic information, geography and climate is essential.
But trying to assemble such information after an emergency
has begun is time consuming and difficult; moreover, that
information may suddenly become sensitive, while a periodic
request to all members for the same elements of information
should not inspire the same protective reactions. In fact,
the Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs
recently has begun to assemble and share such information
through a system known as ReliefWeb. Any international
organization should assemble and periodically update a
comprehensive data base on all its members, based on their
contributions, as a hedge against the need for humanitarian
operations before any such operations are contemplated.
Not coincidentally, much of this information will prove
to be useful for peace operations and sanctions enforcement
as well.
The
need for intelligence assistance is greatest when an international
organization is undertaking preventive diplomacy or beginning
to plan a new operation; after deployment, the field operation
often can generate much of the information it needs. The
US traditionally was reluctant to agree to share information
with the UN until the Security Council had made a decision
in favor of such an operation; now, however, it provides
information on basic infrastructure in advance of such
decisions and periodic briefings on crisis areas worldwide.
The UN, for its part, has been reluctant to move beyond
passive receipt of information to even such minimal active
collection efforts as asking questions - especially questions
on political and military factors. Thus the decision to
deploy peacekeepers or sanctions monitors or a relief
operation can be made without the benefit of relevant
information, and the planning process is hobbled. Member
states should strive to provide as much intelligence as
possible to an international organization before an irreversible
commitment is made, and a structure should be in place
for accomplishing this. The UN should begin actively collecting
information to support operations of all kinds, emphasizing
non-sensitive information from former colonial powers,
neighbors, and other countries that can be expected to
be knowledgeable.
In
most international organizations, responsibility for assembling
intelligence information will fall to military personnel.
They are available in much greater numbers than their
civilian counterparts, have communications resources,
can be ordered around at will, and are accustomed to operating
in international environments. But many of the missions
carried out by international organizations will be humanitarian
and/or economic in nature, and they are likely to have
important political dimensions as well (Quiggin 1998,
p. 205). Thus military intelligence officers will increasingly
be expected to understand and use information that has
not heretofore been classified as "military intelligence."
When
an international organization is engaged in military operations,
it needs adequate military representation of its members,
as well as a strong military element in its own headquarters.
A Military Staff Committee - with military representatives
from each of its members - was provided for in the UN
Charter. It still meets, but it took its last substantive
action in 1948 (Ramsbotham 1995, p. 168). That Committee
should be given new life, and any international organization
that expects to engage in military or quasi-military operations
should have a strong military staff structure capable
of detailed planning and risk assessment prior to the
initiation of operations.
Large
and long-lived multinational organizations eventually
develop a cadre of permanent personnel. Many of them owe
their primary allegiance to the organization, rather than
the country of their birth. Some individuals have, in
fact, left their native countries to escape persecution
or because of political differences with the existing
government. Some have closer ties to some other country
than their own. Neither nationality nor country of
birth can be trusted to be a reliable guide to judge whether
intelligence information can safely be shared.
The
larger the international organization, the less likely
it is that sensitive information can be protected for
any length of time. It is rarely practical to allocate
jobs so as to control access to data. In some cases, information
can be shared orally with one or two individuals without
fear of compromise. But it is generally wise to assume
that information given to an international organization
is potentially available to all its members before long.
Individuals
working with and for international organizations are most
likely to handle information sensibly in the short run
when it is in their self-interest to do so. Peacekeepers
or humanitarian operations officials in a situation of
danger have every reason to protect information from those
who may shoot at them; they also have good reason to share
it with NGO representatives; the latter often can provide
information of equal or greater value. Personnel enforcing
economic sanctions will try to protect information that
promises to enhance their success and consequent compensation.
Moreover, much of this tactical information has value
only for hours or days. Failure to share information was
a major source of the problems that befell the US-led
Somalia operation (Smith 1994, p.178). In an operational
situation, decisions about intelligence sharing must be
made in the field, not at headquarters.
Intelligence
from technical sources is inherently more believable than
intelligence from human sources. It also is often less
vulnerable to compromise, at least in conditions of low-intensity
conflict. Technologies once unique to intelligence are
increasingly available on the commercial market - for
example, West German contractors are collecting land-based
imagery in Kosovo on behalf of the war crimes tribunal.
Satellite data is available commercially from both the
French and the Russians, as well as the US-owned Ikonos
satellite launched in September 1999 (Washington Post,
July 18, 1999 & September 25, 1999; Smith 1994, p.
185). There may be circumstances in which it would be
worthwhile for the UN to buy or lease unmanned aerial
vehicles for reconnaissance purposes. Every effort
should be made to maximize use and sharing of technically-based
information.
Senior
officials who do not come from intelligence-rich environments
tend to have exaggerated expectations of what even the
most sophisticated intelligence systems can provide. They
ask for the moon and believe that someone is holding out
on them if the moon is not delivered in short order. This
problem stems partly from the grandiose descriptions in
the press of various intelligence capabilities and partly
from the fact that intelligence systems may be worldwide
without being equally capable in all geographic areas
and weather conditions. Because information on the capabilities
and limitations of intelligence systems is inevitably
sensitive, this problem can be ameliorated but not solved.
Early and frequent communication with the senior officials
of an international organization or operation about what
can realistically be expected can help.
Analytic
intelligence products shorn of their evidentiary base
are not likely to be accepted at face value by multinational
organizations if they conflict with conventional wisdom
or support one side of an international argument. Analysis,
like human source intelligence, is viewed skeptically
as potentially biased by national policy interests. If
the products are of sufficient importance to justify sharing,
they should be released to the international organization
with as much supporting data as possible.
Realistically,
however, member nations will find it difficult to share
analytic judgments, or supporting evidence, that reflects
badly on other friendly governments or on their own earlier
behavior. Moreover, the analytic perspective of the international
organization will necessarily differ from a purely national
one. Any international organization that has a need
for intelligence, including the UN, also has a need for
an analytic element to serve its senior officials and
provide both the organizational leadership and the member
states with an overview that supplements the national
views put forth by members (UNA/USA, 1997; Kay 1997).
Tactical
signals intelligence (SIGINT) is essential to peacekeeping
operations and can also make a significant contribution
to humanitarian operations, sanctions enforcement, arms
control regimes, and many other activities in which international
organizations engage. In much of the third world, neither
the techniques nor the technology in use are particularly
difficult or sensitive, although this is constantly changing.
Every international organization that intends to engage
in such operations, including the UN, should develop and
maintain an integral tactical SIGINT capability and adequate
on-call reserves. Peacekeeping units can, of course, be
expected to bring their own SIGINT resources to any mission.
Technology
can be a blessing or a curse in international organizations.
In the Persian Gulf War, the collection systems were superb,
but US forces suffered from incompatible dissemination
systems across the military services. On an international
level, this problem is far greater. And it is compounded
by differing training and skill levels of personnel from
a variety of nations, operating in a variety of languages.
International organizations need to keep their systems
as simple as possible and to select equipment and develop
procedures for use by the least educated and talented
of their contingents. They need to pay continual attention
to training personnel to make the most of such systems.
Members should agree to leave personnel in place for extended
periods; working in an international environment is harder
than working in a national one.
REFERENCES
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Cover picture
was taken with permission from
Miro Andrić's book "Hrvatsko podmorje",
Zagreb: Car Herc, 1999, p. 8.
(Motive; 5m. below sea level,
island Palagruža)
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